LONG SIGHTEDNESS OR HYPER METROPIA

SYMPTOMS
In HYPER METROPIA, a person can not see objects clearly which are near to him, but he can see clearly     distant objects
REASON
The reason for HYPER METROPIA is that either the focal length of the lens of eye is too long or the     eyeball is too short.
WHAT HAPPENS IN HYPER METROPIA
In HYPER METROPIA, light rays from a near object are focused behind the Retina.
CORRECTION OF DEFECT
This defect can be corrected by using a convex lens of suitable focal length
POWER OF LENS
Power of lens is defined as the reciprocal of the focal length of the lens in meters.
FORMULA:
Power = 1/f(in meter)
Unit of power of lens is Dioptre.
DIOPTRE
Dioptre is defined as the power of lens whose focal length is one meter
if f =1 meter then the power of the lens = 1 dioptre.

REFLECTION OF LIGHT DEFINITIONS

REFLECTION OF LIGHT
When light rays traveling is a medium reaches the boundary of other medium, they turn back to the     first medium. This phenomenon of turning back of light into the same medium after striking the boundary     of other medium is called Reflection of Light.
LAWS OF REFLECTION
1. The angle of incident is equal to the angle of reflection i.e. <i = <r     2. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal lie on the same plane.
REGULAR REFLECTION
When a beam pass of parallel light rays is incident on a smooth and plane surface, the reflected rays will     also be parallel. This type of reflection is called Regular Reflection.
IRREGULAR REFLECTION
When a beam of parallel light rays is scattered in all directions. Therefore the parallel rays incident on     the surface will reflect in different directions. This type of reflection is called "Irregular or Diffuse     Reflection".
CENTER OF CURVATURE
Center of curvature of a lens or mirror is defined as the center of the sphere of which the less or mirror     is a part. C = Center of curvature.
RADIUS OF CURVATURE
Radius of curvature is the radius of sphere of which the lens or mirror is a part.
PC = Radius of curvature OR PC = R
POLE
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The middle or center point of a lens or a mirror is called "Pole" P = Pole.
PRINCIPLE AXIS
The straight line joining the center of curvature to the pole is called Principle Axis. .
PRINCIPLE FOCUS
When a narrow beam of light, parallel to the principle axis and closed to it, is incident on the surface of     a mirror or lens, the beam reflected or refracted is converged at a fixed point on the axis. This point is     called Principle Axis.     F = principle focus.
FOCAL LENGTH
The distance between the pole of a lens or mirror to the principal focus is called Focal Length (PF) of     lens or mirror. Focal length is always equal to half of the radius of curvature of lens or mirror. f = R/2.
Write down the characteristics of image formed by a plane mirror
1. Image formed by plane mirror is laterally inverted. This means that right side of the object appears on     the left side.     2. Size of image formed by plane mirror is the same as that of size of object.     3. The image formed by plane mirror is virtual because it can not be obtained on the screen.     4. The image is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of the mirror. Fig.
DEFINE SPHERICAL MIRROR AND IT'S TWO TYPES
SPHERICAL MIRROR
Mirror obtained from a spherical surface is known as Spherical Mirror. A spherical mirror is considered as     a section of hollow sphere.
TYPES OF SPHERICAL MIRRORS
There are two types of spherical mirrors.     1. Concave mirror.     2. Convex mirror.
CONCAVE MIRROR
If the inner side of the surface of a spherical mirror is polished to reflect light, the mirror is called a     Concave Mirror. Concave mirror converges parallel beam of light.
CONVEX MIRROR
If the outer side of the surface of a spherical mirror is polished to reflect light the mirror is called a     Convex Mirror. Convex mirror diverges parallel beam light.
MAGNIFICATION
Magnification of a mirror or lens is defined as the ratio of the size of image to the size of object.
M = height of image/height of object M = hi/ho  or M = q/P
REFRACTIVE INDEX
Refractive index is defined as the ratio of sine of the angle of incidence of the sine of the angle of     refraction. FORMULA :
m= sine< i/ sine< r
note :Refractive index depends upon the nature of material.     It has no unit.
ANGLE OF DEVIATION
The angle at which the light ray is refracted (bend) in a prism is called angle of deviation. It is denoted     by < D. Minimum value of angle of deviation is called angle of minimum deviation. It is denoted by     <Dm.

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
Thermal conductivity is defined as" the amount of heat conducted in one second through one cubic meter of a substance whose two opposite faces are maintained at the temperature difference of one degree centigrade." It is denoted by "K". Formula K=QL/ADTt Unit : Unit of thermal conductivity is J/mKs OR watt/m.K.
EXPRESSION FOR THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
Experiments indicates that the amount of heat conducted through a solid block is :  Directly proportional to temperature difference between two faces of block.
DQ a DT ...................... (i)
Directly proportional to the area of cross - section of block.
DQ a A ...................... (ii)
Directly proportional to the the time interval to which heat is conducted.
DQ a t ...................... (iii)
Inversly proportional to the length of block.
DQ a 1/L ...................... (iv)
Combining above facts,we get
DQ a DT.A.t /L
OR
OR

CIRCULAR MOTION AND GRAVITATION

GRAVITATION
Every object in our universe attracts the other object with certain fore towards its center. This force of  attraction is known asGRAVITATIONAL FORCE and the phenomenon is called GRAVITATION. This is  gravitational force which is responsible for the uniformity or regularity in our daily astronomical life. The  whole system of the universe is in order only due to this force. Due to gravitation, the system of our  universe is working uniformly and smoothly. The planets around the earth or around the sun moves in an  orderly motion due to gravitation.
NEWTON’S LAW OF GRAVITATION
In order to explain the gravitational force between two bodies, Newton formulated a fundamental law known after his name i.e. "NEWTON'S LAW OF GRAVITATION" Newton’s law of gravitation states that every object in the universe attracts the other object with a force and :
(1) The gravitational force of attraction between two bodies is directly proportional to the product of their  masses.
F a m1 x m2 ------- (1)
(2) The gravitational force of attraction between two bodies is inversely proportional to the square of the  distance between their centers.
F a 1/d2 --------- (2)
MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION
Combining (1) and (2)
F a m1m2 /d2
F = G m1m2/d2
Where G = universal gravitational constant
Value of G:
G = 6.67 x 10-11 Nm2/kg2
MASS OF THE EARTH
Consider a body of mass ‘m’ placed on the surface of the earth. Let the mass of the earth is ‘Me’ and  radius  of earth is ‘Re’ .
Gravitational force of attraction between earth and body is
F = G m Me/ Re2
We know that the force of attraction of the earth on a body is equal to weight the weight of body.
i.e
F = W
therefore
W = G m Me/ Re2
But W = mg
mg = G m Me/ Re2
or g = G Me/Re2
or Me = g x Re2/G
From astronomical data:  g= 9.8 m/s2  Re = 6.4 x 106 m  G = 6.67 x 10-11 N-m2/kg2  Putting these values in the above equation.
Me = 9.8 (6.4 x 106)2/6.67 x 10-11 or

STATICS

Statics
Statics is the branch of mechanics which deals with the study of bodies at rest under a number of    forces, the equilibrium, conditions of equilibrium, types of equilibrium and torque etc.
Equilibrium
A body is said to be in equilibrium if it is at rest or moving with uniform velocity.    In other words if the linear and angular acceleration of a body are zero, the body is said to be in    equilibrium.    Or we can say that when two or more forces act on a body such that their resultant or combining effect    on the body is Zero and the body retains its state of rest or of uniform motion then the body is said to    be in equilibrium.
Example
A book lying on the table, suspended bodies, all stationary bodies , jump by using parachute.
Types of equilibrium
With respect to the state of a body, equilibrium may be divided into two categories:    1. Static equilibrium.   2. Dynamic equilibrium.   For latest information , free computer courses and high impact notes visit :
Static equilibrium
If the combined effect of all the forces acting on a body is zero and the body is in the state of rest then    its equilibrium is termed asstatic equilibrium.   For example: All stationary bodies
Dynamic equilibrium
when a body is in state of uniform motion and the resultant of all the forces acting upon it is zero then it    is said to be in dynamic equilibrium.   For example: Jump by using parachute.
Conditions of equilibrium
There are two conditions of equilibrium are as follows
First condition of equilibrium
The first condition of equilibrium stated as follow:
To maintain the transitional equilibrium in a body the vector sum of all the forces acting on the body is    equal to zero    i.e.

KINEMATICS

KINEMATICS
"Kinematics is the branch of Physics in which we discuss bodies at rest or motion without the reference of external agent that causes motion or rest."  OR "The branch of physics which deals with the description of motion of objects without reference to the force or agent causing motion in it, is called Kinematics."
REST
	"If a body does not change its position with respect to its surroundings then the body is said to be in a state of rest."
	MOTION
	"If a body continuously changes its position with respect to its surrounding than it is said to be in a state of motion."
	TYPES OF MOTION
	Motion of objects can be divided into three categories.
	(i) TRANSLATIONAL MOTION (ii) ROTATIONAL MOTION (iii) VIBRATIONAL MOTION
	TRANSLATIONAL MOTION
	"Motion of a body in which every particle of the body is being displaced by the same amount is called Translational Motion".
	EXAMPLE:  (i) Motion of a person on a road. (ii) Motion of a car or truck on a road.
	ROTATIONAL MOTION
	"Type of motion in which a body rotates around a fixed point or axis is called Rotational Motion."
	EXAMPLE:  (i) Motion of wheel (ii) Motion of the blades of a fan
	VIBRATIONAL MOTION
	"Type of motion in which a body or particle moves to and fro about a fixed point or mean position is called Vibratory Motion."
	EXAMPLE: (i) Motion of simple pendulum (ii) Motion of the wires of guitar (iii) Motion of swing
	DISPLACEMENT
	"Distance between two points in a particular direction is called Displacement." OR Displacement may also be defined as "the minimum distance between two points in a particular direction."
	It is a vector quantity and is always directed from the initial point to the terminal point. It is denoted by "d".
	SPEED
	"Distance covered by a moving body in one second is called its Speed". OR "Distance covered by a body in unit time is called Speed".
	Speed is a scalar quantity.
	FORMULA
	Speed = Distance traveled/Time taken  OR v = S/t
	UNIT
	Unit of speed in S.I system is "m/sec".
	VELOCITY
	"Distance covered by a body in a particular direction in one second is called Velocity". OR "Displacement of a body in unit time is called Velocity". OR "Change of position of a body per second in a particular direction is called Velocity."
	FORMULA
	velocity = displacement/time
	UNIT
	In S.I system unit of velocity is meter/second. It is a vector quantity.
	ACCELERATION
	"The rate of change of velocity of a body is called Acceleration." OR "Change in velocity of a body in unit time is called its acceleration."
	It is denoted by "a". It is a vector quantity. If a body moves with uniform velocity or constant velocity then its acceleration will be zero. UNIT: m/sec2.
	FORMULA
	Acceleration = change in velocity/time OR a = DV/t

ENERGY

ENERGY
"The ability of a body to perform work is called Energy".
A body cannot perform work if it does not posses energy.A body cannot perform work more than the amount of energy.
	It is a scalar quantity.
	UNITS OF ENERGY
	(i) Joule (ii) Calorie         [NOTE: 1 Calorie = 4.2 joule.] (iii) KWatt-Hour
	TYPES OF ENERGY
	There aree numerous types of energy such as:  Heat Energy  Light Energy  Sound Energy  Nuclear Energy  Chemical Energy  Electrical Energy   Solar Energy  Wind Energy  Kinetic Energy  Potential Energy etc. etc.
	POWER
	"The rate of work done of a body is called Power".
	AVERAGE POWER
	Average power of a body doing work is numerically equal to the totla work done divided by the time taken to perform the work.
	MATHMATICALLY
	Power = Work done/time Power = Work/t but [work = Fd] therefore Power = Fd/t
	UNITS OF POWER
	(i) watt                     [1 watt = 1joule/sec ] (ii) Kilo watt               [1Kw = 1000 watt] (iii) Mega watt (Mw)    [1Mw = 106 watt] (iv) Horse power         [1Hp = 746w]
	POTENTIAL ENERGY
	INTRODUCTION
	Energy stored by a body by any means is called "Potential Energy".
	DEFINITION
	"The energy stored by a body due to its position in gravitational field is known as ‘Gravitational Potential Energy’".
	FORMULA
	Consider a body of mass "m" placed at a height of "h" from the surface of earth.                                               Force = Weight = W              but displacement (d) = h
	Work done = Fd    OR Work done = Wh  [but W = mg]
	work done = mgh WE know that the work done in lifting the body is stored in the body in the form of Potential Energy. Thus                                                         P.E. = mgh

Organic Chemistry Introduction

What Organic Chemistry Is and What Organic Chemists 

Organic chemistry is more than simply the study of carbon or the study of chemicals in living organisms. Take a look at what organic chemistry is, why it is important, and what organic chemists do.

What Is Organic Chemistry?
Organic chemistry is the study of carbon and the study of the chemistry of life. Since not all carbon reactions are organic, another way to look at organic chemistry would be to consider it the study of molecules containing the carbon-hydrogen (C-H) bond and their reactions.

Why Is Organic Chemistry Important?
Organic chemistry is important because it is the study of life and all of the chemical reactions related to life. Several careers apply an understanding of organic chemistry, such as doctors, veterinarians, dentists, pharmacologists, chemical engineers, and chemists. Organic chemistry plays a part in the development of common household chemicals, foods, plastics, drugs, fuels... really most of the chemicals part of daily life.

What Does an Organic Chemist Do?

An organic chemist is a chemist with a college degree in chemistry. Typically this would be a doctorate or master's degree in organic chemistry, though a bachelor's degree in chemistry may be sufficient for some entry level positions. Organic chemists usually conduct research and development in a laboratory setting. Projects that would use organic chemists would include development of a better painkilling drug, formulating a shampoo that would result in silkier hair, making a stain resistant carpet, or finding a non-toxic insect repellent.

Conic Section

Chemical Names

Systematic and Common Names

There are many ways to name a chemical. Here is a look at the difference between different types of chemical names, including systematic names, common names, vernacular names and CAS numbers.

Systematic or IUPAC Name

The systematic name, also called the IUPAC name is the preferred way to name a chemical because each systematic name identifies exactly one chemical. The systematic name is determined by guidelines set forth by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC).

Common Name

A common name is defined by the IUPAC as a name that unambiguously defines a chemical, yet does not follow the current systematic naming convention. An example of a common name is acetone, which has the systematic name 2-propanone.

Vernacular Name

A vernacular name is a name used in a lad, trade or industry that does not unambiguously describe a single chemical. For example, copper sulfate is a vernacular name which may refer to copper(I) sulfate or copper(II) sulfate.

Archaic Name

An archaic name is an older name for a chemical that predates the modern naming conventions. It's helpful to know archaic names of chemicals because older texts may refer to chemicals by these names. Some chemicals are sold under archaic names or may be found in storage labeled with the older names. An example of this is muriatic acid, which is the archaic name for hydrochloric acid and is one of the names under which hydrochloric acid is sold.

CAS Number

A CAS number is an unambiguous identifier assigned to a chemical by the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS), a part of the American Chemical Society. CAS numbers are assigned sequentially, so you can't tell anything about the chemical by its number. Each CAS number consists of three strings of numbers that are separated by hyphens. The first number contains up to six digits, the second number is two digits, and the third number is a single digit.

Other Chemical Identifiers

Although the chemical names and CAS Number are the most common way to describe a chemical, there are other chemical identifiers you may encounter. Examples include numbers assigned by PubChem, ChemSpider, UNII, EC number, KEGG, ChEBI, ChEMBL, RTES number and the ATC code.

Example of Chemical Names

Putting it all together, here are the names for CuSO4·5H2O:

Systematic (IUPAC) Name: copper(II) sulfate pentahydrate

Common Names: copper(II) sulfate, copper(II) sulphate, cupric sulfate, cupric sulphate

Vernacular Name: copper sulfate, copper sulphate

Archaic Name: blue vitriol, bluestone, copper vitriol

How To Name Compounds - Chemistry Nomenclature

Chemistry Notes and Review

.

How To Name Compounds - Chemistry Nomenclature.

n order for chemists and other scientists to communicate with each other, a system of nomenclature or naming was agreed upon by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry or IUPAC. You'll hear chemicals called their common names (e.g., salt, sugar, and baking soda), but in the lab you would use systematic names (e.g., sodium chloride, sucrose, and sodium bicarbonate). Here's a review of some key points about nomenclature.

Naming Binary Compounds

Compounds may be made up of only two elements (binary compounds) or more than two elements. Certain rules apply when naming binary compounds:

• If one of the elements is a metal, it is named first.
• Some metals can form more than one positive ion. It is common to state the charge on the ion using Roman numerals. For example, FeCl2 is iron(II) chloride.
• If the second element is a nonmetal, the name of the compound is the metal name followed by a stem (abbreviation) of the nonmetal name followed by "ide". For example, NaCl is named sodium chloride.
• For compounds consisting of two nonmetals, the more electropositive element is named first. The stem of the second element is named, followed by "ide". An example is HCl, which is hydrogen chloride.

Naming Ionic Compounds
In addition to the rules for naming binary compounds, there are additional naming conventions for ionic compounds:

• Some polyatomic anions contain oxygen. If an element forms two oxyanions, the one with less oxygen ends in -ite while the one with more oxgyen ends in -ate. For example:
  NO2- is nitrite
  NO3- is nitrate

Trigonometric functions

Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs - Maths

Chapter 11: Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs

Notes (Solutions) of Chapter 11: Trigonometric Functions and their Graphs, Text Book of Algebra and Trigonometry Class XI (Mathematics FSc Part 1 or HSSC-I), Punjab Text Book Board, Lahore.

Contents & summary

• Introduction
  • Domains and Ranges of Sine and Cosine Functions
  • Domains and Ranges of Tangent and Cotangent Functions
  • Domain and Range of Secant Function
  • Domain and Range of Cosecant Function
• Period of Trigonometric Functions
  • Exercise 11.1
• Values of Trigonometric Functions
• Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
• Graph of y=sinx from −2π to 2π
• Graph of y=cosx from −2π to 2π
• Graph of y=tanx from −π to π
• Graph of y=cotx from −2π to π
• Graph of y=secx from −2π to 2π
• Graph of y=cscx from −2π to 2π
  • Exercise 11.2